Approach to Software Architecture Description Using UML

The 3+1 Approach to Software Architecture Description Using ML Revision 2. 2 Henries B ¦Arab Christensen, Anion Sorry, and Klaus Marcus Hansen Department of Computer Science, University of Argus Beograd 34, 8200 rush N, Denmark May 2011 Abstract This document presents a practical way of describing software architectures using the Unified Modeling Language. The approach is based on a â€Å"3+1† structure in which three viewpoints on the described system are used – module, component & connector, and allocation – are used to describe a solution for a set of architectural requirements.Introduction Software architecture represents an appropriate level of abstraction for many system development activities [Bass et al. , 2003]. Consequently and correspondingly, appropriate software architectural descriptions may support, e. G. , stakeholder communication, iterative and incremental architectural design, or evaluation of architectures [Bass et al. , 2003], [Clement et a l. , Bibb], [Clement et al. , AAA].This document represents a practical basis for architectural description and in doing so, we follow the IEEE recommended practice for architectural description of software-intensive systems [Software Engineering Standards Committee, 2000]. Central to this recommended practice is the concept of a viewpoint through which the software architecture of a system is described (see Figure 1). A concrete architectural description consists of a set of views corresponding to a chosen set of viewpoints. This document recommends the use of three viewpoints (in accordance with the recommendations of [Clement et al. AAA]): A Module viewpoint concerned with how functionality of the system maps to static development units, a Component & Connector viewpoint concerned with the runtime mapping of nationality to components of the architecture, and an Allocation viewpoint concerned with how software entities are mapped to environmental entities In addition to the views on the architecture, we recommend collecting architecturally significant requirements (see Section 2) in the architecture documentation.This corresponds to the mission of a system as described in [Software Engineering Standards Committee, 2000]. The views corresponding to these viewpoints are described using the Unified Modeling Language standard (ML; [OMG, 2003]). This reports provides examples of doing so. The ML has certain shortcomings in describing software architectures effectively , but is used here to strike a balance between precision/expressiveness and understandability of architectural descriptions. Figure 1 : Ontology of architectural descriptions 1. Structure The rest of this document is structured in two main sections: One introducing the â€Å"Architectural Requirements† section of the documentation (Section 2, page 3), and one introducing the â€Å"Architectural Description† section of the documentation (Section 2, page 3). These sections are introduced in general and a specific example of applying them to the documentation of a system is provided. The examples are created to describe a point-of-sale system (Next POS) for, e. G. , a supermarket point-of-sales. The example is inspired by the case study of Alarms [Alarms, 2002].The system supports the recording of sales and handling of payments for a generic store; it includes hardware components as a bar code scanner, a display, a register, a terminal in the inventory hall, etc. More details of the functionality of the system can be found in Section 2. 1 This is in particular connected to the central Component & Connector viewpoint [Clement et al. , AAA] 2 Architectural Requirements Two types of descriptions of architecturally significant requirements are appropriate: scenario-based and quality attribute-based requirements.The architecturally significant scenarios (or use cases) contain a subset of the overall scenarios providing the functional requirements for the system. These ca n possibly be augmented with requirements on performance, availability, reliability etc. Related to the scenarios. Moreover, â€Å"non-functional† scenarios, e. G. , describing modifiability of the system may be useful as a supplements . All requirements cannot be described as scenarios of system functionality, and we propose supplementing the scenarios with a set of the most critical quality attributes that the system should fulfill.Since quality attributes (such as modifiability and performance) are often in conflict, this needs to be a subset of all architectural quality attributes. The goal of describing architectural requirements is to enable the construction of a set of â€Å"test cases† against which deterrent architectural designs may be compared and/or evaluated. 2. 1 Example In the Next POS case, a scenario is a specific path through a use case. An example of such a scenario is: Process Sale: A customer arrives at a checkout with items to purchase. The cashie r uses the POS system to record each purchased item.The system presents a running total and line-item details. The customer enters payment information, which the system validates and records. The system updates inventory. The customer receives a receipt from the system and then leaves with the items. Critical architectural attributes for the Next POS system area : Availability. The system shall be highly available since the costiveness of sales depends on its availability Ђ Portability. The system shall be portable too range of deterrent platforms to support a product line of POS systems Usability.The system shall be usable by clerks with a minimum of training and with a high degree of e science 3 Architectural Description It is beneficial, when documenting software architecture, to apply deterrent viewpoints to the system. Otherwise the description of the system will be incomprehensible. 2 Architecturally significant scenarios are the basis of many architectural evaluation appr oaches [Clement et al. , Bibb] 3 Note that this choice of quality attributes excludes, e. G. Performance, scalability, security, safety, reliability, intolerability, and testability.Taken this into account, it is first important with a viewpoint which describes the functionality of the system in terms of how functionality is mapped into implementation. Secondly, it is important to describe how the functionality of the system maps to components and interaction among components. And thirdly, it is important to see how software components map onto the environment, in particular hardware structures. These three viewpoints are the module, component & connector, and allocation viewpoints respectively in concordance with [Clement et l. AAA]. The viewpoints used in the architectural description section are defined as proposed in [Software Engineering Standards Committee, 2000]: for each, we first have a section describing the concerns of this viewpoint, then a section describing the stakeho lders, then a section describing the elements and relations that can be used to describe views in this viewpoint, and finally an example of a view. 3. 1 3. 1. 1 Module Viewpoint Concerns This architectural viewpoint is concerned with how the functionality is mapped to the units of implementation.It visualizes the static view of the systems architecture by wowing the elements that comprise the system and their relationships. 3. 1. 2 Stakeholder Roles This viewpoint is important to architects and developers working on or with the system. 3. 1 . 3 Elements and Relations The elements are units of implementation including: Class: A class describing the properties of the objects that exist at runtime. Package: A logical division of classes in the system. This can refer to packages as we find them in Java or Just give a logical division between the classes of the system.Interface: A classification of the interface of the element that realizes it. It can refer to the interfaces found in e. G. Java or Just a description of an interface that a class can conform to. The relations describe constraints on the runtime relationships between elements: Association: Shows that there is a hard or weak aggregation relationship between the elements and can be used between classes. Generalization: Shows that there is a generalization relation between the elements and can be used between two classes or two interfaces. Realization: Shows that one element realizes the other and can be used from a class to the interface it implements. Dependency: Shows that there is a dependency between the elements and can be used between all the elements. 3. 1 . 4 Examples The module view of the POS system can be described using the class diagrams of JIMS, which can contain all the above mentioned elements and relations. It is possible to describe the system top-down by starting with the most top-level diagram. In figure 2 the overall packages of the system are shown.Figure 3 and figure 4 show furthe r decomposition of the Domain Model package and the Payments package in the Domain Model package. Figure 2: Package overview diagram for the POS system Dependencies among packages are also shown; these dependencies arise because of relationship among classes in deterrent packages. As an example, consider the association between figure 4 there is an association from classes in Payments to the Customer class of the Sales package. This relationship gives rise to a dependency from the Payments to Sales package as shown in figure 3.Figure 3: Decomposition of the Domain Model package of the POS system Typically, class diagrams such as figure 4 will suppress detail and also omit elements for clarity, since a major purpose of architectural description is come annunciation. In figure 4, e. G. , details of methods and attributes of classes have been suppressed and certain classes have been omitted. Figure 4: Decomposition of the Payments package of the POS system 3. 2 3. 2. 1 Component and Co nnectors (C&C) Viewpoint This viewpoint is concerned with the run-time functionality of the system?I. . What does the system do? This functionality lies as the heart of purpose of the system under development, thus this viewpoint is of course a very central viewpoint, and architectural design often starts from tit . In this viewpoint, software systems are received as consisting of components which are blackball units of functionality and connectors which are first-class representations of communication paths between components. Components embody functional behavior while control and communication aspects are defined by the connectors.Paraphrasing this, you can say that components define what parts of the system is responsible for doing while connectors define how components exchange control and data. It is important to describe properties of both components and connectors in the documentation. This is done using a combination of textual descriptions (listing susceptibilities for exa mple) with diagrams showing protocols, state transitions, threading and concurrency issues as seems relevant to the architecture at hand. 4 Hoverflies et al. Hoverflies et al. , 1999] defines a process where this viewpoint is the first to be considered and other viewpoints are derived and elaborated from it. 6 Figure 5: C&C overview of the POS system 3. 2. 2 This viewpoint is important to architects, developers, and may also serve to give an impression of the overall system runtime behavior to customers and end users. 3. 2. 3 The C&C viewpoint has one element type and one relation type: Component: A national unit that has a well-defined behavioral responsibility.Connector: A communication relation between components that defines how control and data is exchanged. Both are first class citizens of this viewpoint and both may contain behavior. This is obvious for components, but connectors may exhibit behavior as well. Examples of connectors with behavior are those that provide bufferi ng of data between a data producer and consumer, data convention, adoption of protocols, remote procedure calls, networking, etc. A connector defines one or more protocols. A protocol defines both incoming and outgoing operations and mandates the ordering of them.Thus a connector's protocol is radically deterrent from a class' interface that only tells what operations its instances provide (not uses) and does not describe any sequencing of method calls. 3. 2. 4 The POS system has four major functional parts as shown in the C&C view in figure 5. Components are represented by ML active objects, connectors by links with association names and possibly role names. Active objects are typically processes or threads in the operating system or programming language, and links the communication paths between them.The diagram cannot stand alone, as component names and connector names are only indicative of the functional responsibilities associated with each. We 7 therefore provide an descripti on of component functionality in terms of responsibilities: Barded Scanner. Responsible for 1) Control and communication with bar code scanner hardware and 2) notification providing ID of scanned bar code for items passing the scanner. Sales. Responsible for 1) keeping track of items scanned; their price and quantity; running total of scanned items and 2) initiation and end of sales handling. Ђ Presentation. Responsible for 1) displaying item names, quantity, subtotals and grand total on a terminal 2) printing item, quantity, subtotals and grand total on paper receipt 3) handle key board input for defining quantities when only one of a set of items are scanned. Inventory. Responsible for 1) keeping track of items in store 2) mapping between bar code ID's and item name and unit price. Likewise, the connectors' protocols needs to be described in more detail. The level of detail needed depends on the architecture at hand.For some connectors, it may be us cent with a short textual d escription (for instance if it is a straightforward application of the observer pattern; or if it is a direct memory read); others may best be explained by ML interaction diagrams; and still others may have a very large set of potential interactions (like a SQL connector) of which only a few may be worthwhile to describe in more detail. The POS example names three connectors: MFC. A standard MFC patterns is the protocol for this connector that connects the Sales component serving the role of model and Presentation serving as controller and view. Ђ JDBC. This connector handles standard SQL queries over the JDBC protocol. BPCS. This connector defines a protocol for connecting with a barded scanner. Data and control is exchanged using ASCII strings in a coded format containing control words and data elements. Sequence diagrams can be used to describe connector protocols. Depending on the system, it may be relevant to document connector protocols individually (a sequence diagram for each protocol) and/or to provide the â€Å"big picture† showing interaction over a set of connectors.Typical use cases as well as critical failure scenarios may be considered for description. In our point of sales example, an overall sequence diagram (diagram 6 seems most elevate, as the individual connectors have rather simple protocols. The scenario shown in the diagram is the event of a single item being scanned and registered. Further detail can be provided, like a sequence diagram showing observer registration and steady state operation for the MFC connector; perhaps table layout or SQL statements for the JDBC; or command language for the BPCS connector.However, most likely this information does not provide architectural insight (they do not eject architectural qualities) and their details should be found in more detailed documentation instead. 8 Figure 6: POS â€Å"item scanned† scenario 3. 3 3. 3. 1 Allocation Viewpoint This architectural viewpoint is concerned with how the software elements of the system – in particular the C&C viewpoint elements and relations – are mapped to platform elements in the environment of the system.We are interested in what the software elements require (e. G. , processing power, memory availability, network bandwidth) and what the hardware elements provide. 3. 3. 2 This viewpoint is important to a number of stakeholders: Maintainers needing to deploy and maintain the system, to users/customers who need to know how nationality is mapped to hardware, to developers who need to implement the system, and to architects. 3. 3. 3 The deployment viewpoint has two primary element types: Software elements: These may be, e. . , executables or link libraries containing components from the C&C views. Environmental elements: Nodes of computing hardware Furthermore, there are three main relation types: Allocated-to relations: Shows to which environmental elements software elements are allocated at runtime. Thes e relations may be either static or dynamic (e. G. , if components move between environmental elements). Dependencies among software elements Protocol links among environmental elements showing a communication protocol used between nodes. 3. 3. 4 Figure 7 shows the deployment of the Next POS system using a ML deployment diagram. The deployment is a typical 3-tier deployment in which presentation is run on a client, domain code is run on a JEEZ application server, and data is stored on a database server. Figure 7: Deployment view of the Next POS system The following elements are of interest Environmental elements (shown as ML nodes) – The Barded Scanner is the device used for inputting sold items into the system.It s read via an ROARS connection to the POS Terminals – The Terminal is the main point of interaction for the users of the Next POS system – The Application Server is a machine dedicated for serving all Terminals on an application level – A Databa se Server provides secondary storage Software elements (Shown as ML components) – The POS executable component runs the client part of the Next POS system including presentation and handling of external devices (biz. The Barded Scanner). It communicates with the Application Server via RMI over IIOP – Jobs is an open source application server which is used for running the domain- elated functionality of the system. It uses the Database Server via JDBC 10 – Myself is an open source SQL database which handles defenestrated functionality (storage, transactions, concurrency control) of the system. 3. 4 Overview The three viewpoints and their associated elements and relations are summarized below.Module c Deployment Elements Class Component Executable Interface Computing node Package Relations Association Connector Allocated-to Generalization Dependency Realization Protocol link +1 view: Architectural requirements The mapping to ML is straight forward for the module a nd deployment viewpoint UT less so for the C viewpoint. For the C viewpoint, components are show by ML Active Objects (that represent run-time entities with their own thread of execution, typically threads and processes), while connectors are shown by ML links (that represent control- and data flow using some protocol). 2

Online Enrollment Related Study

I was able to use the student enrollment system of University of Ulster for the first time and it was a WEB based enrollment system/application. A web application or web app is an application that is accessed via the Internet or an Intranet. Web applications are popular due to ubiquity of the client. The ability to update and maintain web applications without distributing and installing software on potentially thousands of client computers are key reasons for their popularity. A significant advantage of building web applications to support a standard browser feature is the ability to perform as specified, regardless of the operating system installed on a given client and it enables the students, faculty, and administrators of the institution to gain 24-hour access and use to the proposed system via a client computer without any needs of installing or distributing any software.The Automated Enrollment System of University of Ulster aims for an accurate, user friendly, efficient system that can help both the student and personnel for fast data processing of enrollment. And now we are going to talk whether we have achieved that aim or not. I was able to use the student enrollment system of University of Ulster for the first time and it was a WEB based enrollment system/application. A web application or web app is an application that is accessed via the Internet or an Intranet. Web applications are popular due to ubiquity of the client.The ability to update and maintain web applications without distributing and installing software on potentially thousands of client computers are key reasons for their popularity. A significant advantage of building web applications to support a standard browser feature is the ability to perform as specified, regardless of the operating system installed on a given client and it enables the students, faculty, and administrators of the institution to gain 24-hour access and use to the proposed system via a client computer without any n eeds of installing or distributing any software.

Business munication for Nonverbal Skills and Body Language

According to many scholars, all the achievements made by organizations and panies have been made possible because of munication between people working in those organizations, panies, or firms. Without proper munication, very little can be realized whether it is in terms of development or good and harmonious relationship (Harrison, 2009). Therefore, effective munication is a key factor in the success of relationship and businesses. Consequently, I have been in a case where people I was municating with perceived wrong information. As I was the team leader, I wanted my juniors to ensure that all the pending projects to be pleted within one day. However, since this was linear munication, most of my juniors understood it differently, that is ‘projects to be cleared in the next two days’. Barriers to effective munication are things that prevent effective munication between interested parties. Generally, during munication, the sender expects that the whole message is delivered to the receiver (Sole, 2009). However, because the message has to pass through some channels, distortion must occur. These distortions, will not allow the original message to be delivered to the receiver. Some barriers to munication are discussed as under: This is one reason why original messages do not reach the receiver as expected. Noise as one of the potential barriers to munication is divided into two categories; the physical noise and psychological noise. Physical noise refers to physical distraction present in the environment during the time when munication is taking place. The noise may be ing from hooting vehicles, people shouting, excessive hotness, or cold. Consequently, the message may be distorted and will not be encoded properly. Therefore, physical noise can distort munication at any level, for instance, it can hinder munication at the sender, receiver, or at the channel. The second type of noise as a barrier to munication is called psychological noise. It is usually experienced when the sender or the receiver has some inbuilt psychological factors, for example, a sender may have problems in using vocabularies in translating the image into sound such that the receiver can understand it correctly (Battell, 2006). In this case, the receiver may not get the meaning of the original content of information intended. Consequently, the receiver with a perceived mind may further distort the message by encoding it differently. Since the sender has wrongly interpreted the content of this message from the start, the receiver will also encode very different thing. This is one of the most mon barriers to effective munication as it is met frequently. It takes place from the fact that people may speak different languages including vernacular languages while others may not either understand nor speak a particular language (Potter, 2002). Consequently, as the sender municates the message, the receiver may not understand the information, thus a hindrance to munication. Similarly, a language may be too hard for the receiver to understand and this may also lead to the wrong message decoded by the receiver (Help guide, 2016). In some cases, the sender may run short of appropriate language to express his or her information to the audience, therefore, he or she may decide to use a language that befits him or her and leave the rest to the receiver to understand and interpret. It is, therefore, important to choose a language that fits the audience so that misinterpretation of the information is prevented.   Apart from noise and language barriers, effective munication may also be hindered by cultural differences. Culture in the social perspective refers to how people carry out themselves, their living styles, norms, and what they do to earn their living. In the world, there are different races, color, ethnic groups, which at any given time carry out their activities differently (Lavy, 2013). This leads to people speaking different languages, practice different cultures among others. The channel of munication is fundamental in ensuring that there is an effective munication between the sender and the receiver. A bad channel will automatically result in distortion of the information (Miller, Biggart, & Newton, 2013). The information to be delivered must have done while choosing an appropriate channel for that particular message. Otherwise, if distance and channel were not put into consideration, there would be distortion on the original message   I realized that because I did not directly pass my information to the responsible people, they had to receive different information from the one that was intended. I realized also that if I can reach my audience directly and physically, I would deliver my information directly without relying on other individuals to do it. The people who were used as channels in this were not affected directly, for instance, it was not their responsibility to plete the projects in time, so they took it less seriously. The information could have gone a wrong channel to reach the intended people. Therefore, to ove e the barriers, a sender should choose the right channel to convey the information. Some of these channels include writing or just talking to the people face-to-face. Face-to-face is always an effective means because the sender finds time to meet his or her audience physically and there is room for feedback as well (Nash, 2015).    As discussed above, the language barrier is one factor that hinders effective munication. In the modern world, however, people are equipped with different languages, but it is important to ensure that the language being used to convey the message is one that everybody will understand so that they would be able to interpret and encode the correct information.  Ã‚   Help guide. (2016). Nonverbal munication: Improving Your Nonverbal Skills and Reading Body Language. Helpguide.org. Retrieved 25 November 2016, from https://www.helpguide.org/articles/relationships/nonverbal munication.htm Harrison, F. (2009). Effective munication. The munication Guide 2(3), 12-17. Battell, C. (2006). Effective listening (1st ed.).Alexandria, Va.: ASTD Press. Sole, K. (2009). Making connections: Understanding interpersonal munications. Bridge Nash, E. (2015). International Education on Principles of munication. New York: McGraw Hill. Lavy, I. (2013). Soft Skills – An Important Key to munication in the "Shift to a Service-Driven Economy" Era. International Journal of e-Education, e-Business, e-Management, and e-Learning. Miller, L., Biggart, A., and Newton, B. (2013). Basic munication skills. International Journal of Training and Development, 17(3), pp.173-175. Potter, E. (2002). Improving munication Skills and Employability in the 21st Century. Industrial and Labour Relations Review, 55(4), p.739

Project on Syracuse University Handicap Access Lab Report

Project on Syracuse University Handicap Access - Lab Report Example Materials The material necessary for the completion of this report included conducting a survey of the different areas of the university premises to find out what facilities are accessible to the disable personnel who get into the premises. The other method used to collect data was interviews. An interview was conducted with the construction supervisor to find out on their plans to make their designs accessible to disabled personnel. Collected data Lot Name Total Spots Handicap Spots ADA Requirement Within Requirement? (Yes or No) Arch Strip   28 28 2 2 Yes Adam Street Garage 301 7 8 No Booth Garage 365 8 8 Yes Brockway 26 0 2 No Brewster Boland Garage 196 2 6 No Day/Flint   134 5 5 Yes Dome 34 0 2 No Harrison 60 3 3 Yes Haven 18 1 1 Yes Irving Garage 409 14 9 Yes Lawrinson Garage 154 0 6 No Marion 58 2 3 No Ostrom   58 58 0 3 No Quad 1 154 11 6 Yes Quad2 46 3 2 Yes Quad 3   27 4 2 Yes Quad 4   107 3 5 No Quad 5  Ã‚   21 2 1 Yes Sadler   53 0 3 No Shaw 51 1 3 No Stadium 474 0 9 No University Ave Garage 783 17 15.66 Yes Walnut West   10 1 1 Yes Washington 5 1 1 Yes Washington Arms 20 1 1 Yes Waverly   109 8 5 Yes Women's Building N/S  Ã‚   105 2 5 No TOTAL 3806 98 Results The data collected as shown above indicates that most of the parking lots that the survey was conducted were accessible to persons with disabilities. ... From the research conducted by the author it was found that the south campus does not put in disabled spots unless requested by an individual and then they will put a disabled spot near the residence of the person who requested. From the dining hall that is being built in the west campus, there are plans to put disabled spots but there is no room so there will be no likelihood of adding more parking. The construction supervisor should be advised to consider putting in place elevators since the area is not enough for the construction of ramps. From the above chart we gather that only 5.52% of the university’s parking lot is accessible to the disabled personnel. The amount of space created for handicapped spot should not be much but at least a sizable space that is enough. This may not be much or equal but it shows an effort to provide the ethical responsibility of the university to the disabled personnel within the premises and outside. According to the design manual- barrier f ree (2008), ramps should be conducted in all areas accessible to all kinds of people especially shopping malls, pathway alleys, tenant buildings and even restaurants. The ADA act requires that all landlords should make structural changes to existing facilities to meet their program accessibility requirements. This act also applicable to the facilities undertaking constructions and everyone is liable to the consequences of breaking the rule. The design manual- barrier free (2008), requires that every facility that offers access to the handicapped to provide ramps to make an ease access of the building. Wheelchair ramps can be permanent, semi-permanent or portable. Permanent and

Critique paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critique paper - Essay Example Basically, it is a positive effect in work output and efficiency due to the attention given by the management in understanding the needs and observing the work ethics of the people. Based on the article, Hawthorne effect works like an investment to the workforce. When the people are given what the need such as proper compensations, workload, and even trust, they are bound to produce better results which then serve as rewards to the organization or company (Accel, 2010). Based on the data presented by the article, Hawthorne effect can be considered as an observable positive effect due to the attention given by the superiors or the researchers. There are underlying issues then in such case. Due to the probability of a Hawthorne effect, the credibility of the results of the study decreases. In an analysis of the Hawthorne effect and the empirical research undertaken in Hawthorn Works of the Western Electric Company there are factors questionable in the research (Adaira, 1984). One signi ficant observation is related to the procedure undertaken. There are problems in the variables involved in the study. Basically, defining the variables in a study is the most important part of the procedure.

Effective Cross-Cultural Management in the UK Company Essay - 2

Effective Cross-Cultural Management in the UK Company - Essay Example According to Hennart and Zeng (2002), amalgamation of organizational structure, team dynamics and business infrastructure has gone through a regime shift, which has been witnessed over last 20 years primarily because of a globalized world. Due to a strongly interconnected world, frequency as well as amount of knowledge and information transmission across borders has increased to a great extent (Hofstede and McCrae, 2004). Considering the current intensity of competition and business environment, it is noticed that companies headquartered in a particular country are seeking entry into international field by means of business expansion on a global magnitude. Johnson, Lenartowicz and Apud (2006) suggested that the underlying motive behind implementation of such a strategy is to gain an advantageous position. In effect, companies gain access to a larger base of customer and are able to amplify growth rate (Minbaeva and Michailova, 2004). Empirical research scholars such as, Moran, Harris and Moran (2007) and Morley and Robins (2001), provide a different view point. According to the authors, companies implement global expansion strategies in order to spread risk evenly. Such strategies offer companies with the opportunity to diversify their business portfolio, thereby setting up compound earning sources and learning foreign cultures. The fundamental motive behind undergoing such a learning process is to support innovation.

Performance Appraisals and Reviews Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Performance Appraisals and Reviews - Term Paper Example The workers are aware of what is expected of them and hence work towards fulfilling their expectations. Since annual appraisal are involving and time consuming for managers, they arrange to carry out surveys or reviews on a regular basis in order to simplify the annual appraisal process (Arthur, 2008).All members of the organization are subject to appraisal if the organization has to achieve its vision and mission and improved performance. Communication is vital in carrying out performance appraisal. The management discusses with the employees regarding their performance and areas that require assistance and also involve them in designing appraisal forms. Conducting annual salary reviews which coincide with performance appraisals have been criticized by many scholars but Chapman (2011) argues that using annual performance appraisal as the basis for salary review enables the firm to plan its finances for the next budget year. When carrying out performance appraisal, the managers shoul d ensure that the mode of appraisal is in line with the employment laws which prohibit all kinds of employment discrimination. For the employees to trust and accept the results the method used should be consistent; ‘same employee classifications should be evaluated based on the same criteria’ (Arthur, 2008). ... Procedure for Carrying out Performance Appraisal Proper planning and execution of staff appraisal ensures effectiveness, reliability and validity of the results. It also ensures acceptability by the appraisees hence commitment to achieve the set objectives. Involving staff in every step of the process is vital to ensure a feeling of ownership and commitment. The appraiser and appraisee prepare all the materials required for the appraisal such as past appraisal documents and achievement records. The appraisal form is designed by HR department or through collaboration with those being appraised and with the approval by management. Understanding the appraisal form by the appraiser and appraisee is vital in simplifying the process (Bohlander & Snell, 2010). The items to be discussed are sequenced and encompass all aspects of staff development. Self-assessment forms are given in advance for staff to appraise themselves by filling the forms. The next step is to clarify the purpose of the a ppraisal and the method to be used. The appraisee is informed on the date of appraisal and the venue and given ample time to prepare his/her own records. The venue should be carefully chosen in a private and quiet atmosphere for discussion. The layout of the room and sitting arrangement affects the behavior of the person being appraised. It is thus advisable to set the room in a relaxed atmosphere to reduce tension. Bacal (2003) argues that the managers should choose appropriate sitting position such as at a round table for more informal discussion and relaxed atmosphere. The introduction stage is vital in determining failure or success of the process. If the appraiser begins by criticizing the appraisee, he/she may feel uncomfortable and may lose interest

Adults with Chronic illness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Adults with Chronic illness - Essay Example The precise regions, in this case, are sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. However, infectious diseases are also claiming lives of people in developing countries due to poor nutrition and sanitation causes but still chronic diseases are leading killer condition in the world. Also, the elderly population is more vulnerable to chronic ailments, and their cases are on the rise (Pinquart, 2014). The chronic disease amongst adults supersedes the other killer infectious diseases like HIV/AIDS. Obesity is one of the worldwide problems as per the universal health organization report. Internationally, the chronic diseases are also threatening lives of various countries in developing and developed countries, for instance in America, the prevalence of chronic disease is high and, as a result, affects the financial and public health. The condition has also contributed to fast growing of older adult’s population, and other risk factors. In developing countries such Kenya, chronic diseases a re on the rise and mostly the adults are affected (Pinquart, 2014). It also affects the youth significantly because of the lifestyle reasons. On the other lower middle income, chronic diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes also significantly affect medium and rich countries more than infectious diseases affect them. At the local scenario, a good example is Bronx New York the issue of chronic illness affects five main neighborhoods. The most common chronic disease is diabetes and obesity in the Bronx. The causes of the high rise of diabetes and obesity condition I Bronx New York is a lifestyle, poor habits of feeding. A half of the population of Bronx New York is reported to have chronic diseases this far much higher than countries America, Africa, and Caucasians. Junk food and calories intake are also highly consumed in the Bronx, vegetables, fruits are hardly available, and when they are, they are more expensive.

Applied Case Study report for Transnational Geographies Essay

Applied Case Study report for Transnational Geographies - Essay Example According to recent estimates 77.9 million Asians reside in different parts of the world and 215,764,000 people migrated to different parts of the globe in the year 2010 (MPI data, 2012). The figures illustrate the significance of transnational migration and provide the base for numerous research studies. Migration Information Source (MIS) is an integral part of the Migration Policy Institute (MPI) that caters to the compilation and assimilation of data collected from different global organizations, government bodies and agencies on migratory trends and statistics. The data collected by the MIS is structured and collated to provide analytical evidence of transnational migration trends. The online information resource forms a vital source for information and data on migration movements enabling analysts to provide different perspectives on people movement for improved understanding of migration. The reports, data and statistics are accessible to journalists, policymakers, researchers and academicians online (MIS website, 2012). Research context – background and overview Global migration has been one of the important aspects driving the economic growth and development of any region. While migration in the ancient times was limited to trade and settlement purposes, the modern era defined new grounds for migration and the number of people migrating from one country to another continues to increase (Hamilton and Grieco, 2002). Migration of people from one region to another had immense social, cultural and economic implications. Researchers, academicians and policy makers realized the need to have instant access to migration data for analyzing social development, cultural impacts, and economic growth factors. However, there were very few reliable sources of information available on people migration from one country to another earlier. The need for an easily accessible and reliable source of data in this context was realized. The MIS was conceived as a part of the MPI, that forms a non-profit organization based in Washington. The goal of the MPI was to â€Å"deliver sound and accurate data and analysis on migration trends and refugees† (Hamilton and Grieco, 2002, p3). The online information service was thus conceptualized in the early 2000s to facilitate data collection and analysis of international migration. Numerous research studies on transnational geographies have focused on analyzing migration trends and its influence on social, cultural and economic development of any region. A research article by Radcliffe, Silvey, and Olson (2006) explored the political dimensions of transnational migration and its linkages to religious beliefs, cultural practices and economic development within a region. The paper explores the different perspectives and conclusive evidences offered by numerous research studies in this context. Another research study by Silvey (2004) seeks to explain the role of States of Indonesia and Saudi Arabia in shap ing migratory trends of women between the two countries. A more recent study by Blunt (2007) focused on the inter-linkages existing between the cultural environment of a region and transnational mobility. Faist (2008) in his works on migration and transnational development reflects on â€Å"how national states structure the transnational spaces in which non-state actors are engaged in cross-border

The Office Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Office - Essay Example The three levels of organizational culture are observable artifacts, espoused values and basic assumption. The observable artifacts culture level comprises of observation of the behaviour of the employees,dress code, technology level and even the office physical layout. The conduct of the manager Michael is, for example, controversial same to the other employees who are not busy with work. The second criteria of determining organizational culture are the espoused values analysis. It consists of how the values influence the employees behaviour. It includes the attitude of employees. The manager, for example, shows a compromising attitude towards the reception since he is rude to her. The final level is the basic assumptions consisting of vital generalised assumptions made that also determine the culture and behaviour of employees (Khan 45). The manager according to the video clip is failing in creating a high-performance culture at the office. It is because the manager seems to be a joke and takes things casually. He fails in creating control and authority in the office and also lacks leadership qualities to propel the office to high performance. The manager should instead ensure efficient implementation of practices geared towards the achievement of high

Who Killed the Electric Car Analysis Essay Example for Free

Who Killed the Electric Car Analysis Essay Who Killed the Electric Car? is a powerful tool pertinent to many academic disciplines and adaptable to a variety of abilities, learning styles, and classroom goals. This rich, self-contained film requires little or no additional research on the part of the instructor or the class, but can be used as the foundation for independent student research. The film divides neatly into two nearly equal and independent segments that can be shown on successive days or at different points in a unit. Both segments offer excellent discussion opportunities. The classroom experience of students taking courses on environmental science or offerings that include a unit on air quality or environmental concerns would be enriched by viewing Who Killed the Electric Car?. Courses that encourage interest in engineering and practical math applications would also benefit. The ethical and civic questions that the film explores offer a natural connection for teachers working in the area of civics, government, ethics, and business ethics. In many of these courses the film could be treated as a case study. The ethical questions raised are nearly unlimited and a large variety of higher-level-thinking activities can be developed from the film. Included in this packet are discussion prompts, class activities, and research suggestions. 1 FILM SUMMARY included, the General Motors electric vehicle is featured. As this segment concludes, the success of the industry’s legal strategy is symbolized by a celebrity-studded funeral for the electric car. This segment is filled with factual analysis that examines conflicting claims about emissions, practicality, costs of various fuels, and consumer demand. Who Killed the Electric Car? is presented as a whodone-it mystery. Staying true to this genre, the film opens with necessary background information, describes the crime committed, answering all of the what, where, and when questions, and then in the style of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle gathers the suspects for close scrutiny, coming to a conclusion on the guilt or innocence of each. The second half of Who Killed the Electric Car? is Sherlock Holmes at his best. The seven suspects identified in the first half of the film are scrutinized. One by one, consumers, batteries, oil companies, auto manufacturers, the U. S. government, the California Air Resources Board, and the newest villain, the hydrogen car, pass under the bare bulb in the inspector’s interrogation room in an attempt to answer the question asked in the film’s title: Who Killed the Electric Car? At the end of each segment the featured suspect is judged as guilty or innocent. Opening with a bit of automotive history that establishes the electric car as a competitive alternative to the internal combustion engine, Who Killed the Electric Car? takes the viewer back to the beginning of the twentieth century and the dawn of the automotive age. A straightforward explanation of why gasoline beats out electricity as the fuel of choice and how the internal combustion engine wins dominance concludes the broad overview. The film then moves to the recent past with the introduction of the California Air Resources Board and their 1990 decision to require that ten percent of all cars sold in California by each car manufacturer be zero-emission vehicles by the year 2003. The Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde response of automotive companies is revealed; production and marketing of zero-emission cars is detailed, a period during which the legal and political teams of the same manufacturers work to defeat the law that gave birth to modern electric vehicles. While several manufacturers are The film ends on a positive note, recognizing a grassroots movement that envisions cleaner air and energy independence. In a John Kennedy-style appeal, the film claims that those who solve our energy conundrum will be those that â€Å"change the world. † 2 SELECTED SCENES FOR CLASSROOM REVIEW 1:19 19:40 Two million new cars are sold in Television advertisement for G. M. ’s California each year. electric car. 2:55 21:21 Cheap oil supports the combustion Introduce Dr. Alan Lloyd of C. A. R. B. engine over the electric car. 3:35 22:10 Air quality in California: Manufacturer’s lawsuit to â€Å"Black cloud of death. † overturn emissions standards. 4:32 22:30 Each gallon of gasoline burned yields President Bush endorsing hydrogen 19 pounds of carbon dioxide. technology in the State of the Union. 4:55 22:43 Introduce S. David Freeman. Hydrogen Hummer and the hydrogen highway. 7:40 23:20 Creating demand for electric cars. C. A. R. B. hearing on the emissions standards. 8:50 25:30 C. A. R. B. and California’s C. A. R. B. vote to kill the standards. zero-emission policy. 12:40 26:15 Cost to run an electric car equals Manufacturers start to collect gasoline when gas is 60 cents per gallon. the electric cars. 14:10 27:35 Californians Against Utility â€Å"Save the electric car† campaign, Company Abuse including the mock funeral. 16:10 29:30 G. M. claims to have built electric cars Last EV1 collected. according to demand. 19:10 31:20 Marketing; How far, how fast, EV1s in a G. M. lot. how much? 3 33:20 50:36 G. M. spokesperson explains the Suspect: Car Manufacturers fate of the collected EV1s. 35:30 56:20 PBS at the car crusher. Suspect: Government 36:58 1:03:57 S. David Freeman, â€Å"We’re up against Suspect: C. A. R. B. most of the money in the world. † 37:15 1:07:02 Vigil for the EV1s. Suspect: Hydrogen Fuel Cell 38:40 1:11:08 Would you buy one of these electric President Bush at a hydrogen cars? Display check for 1. 9 million filling station. dollars offered to G. M. 39:20 1:15:05 â€Å"Who controls the future? Last cars moved. He who has the biggest club. † 1:18:52 39:34 1 Scene from Naked Gun 2 /2: Automotive Museum The Smell of Fear. 40:25 1:20:30 List of suspects. Verdicts. 40:58 1:22:32 Suspect: Consumers â€Å"The fight about the electric car was quite simply a fight about the future. † 43:20 1:23:58 Suspect: Batteries Introduce James Woolsey and Plug In America. 1:27:19 46:38 â€Å"The one group of people that steps Suspect: Oil Companies up to take it on is the group that will change the world. † 4 DISCUSSION PROMPTS. These prompts can be used for full-class discussion, small group conversations, or adapted for use as writing assignments of varying length and detail. †¢ What compromises related to cars and transportation are you willing to make to preserve and improve air quality? Brainstorm possibilities and then discuss each one, focusing on the average consumer. †¢ What one assertion in the film do you disagree with? Why? †¢ What one assertion in the film troubles you the most? Why? †¢ In your own words, explain why the car manufacturers collected and destroyed the electric vehicles. †¢ Did government serve the people in the case of electric cars? Why? †¢ Does government have the right to tell companies what to manufacture? Why? †¢ How important an issue is our nation’s dependence on oil? Explain. †¢ Do you agree that those who solve the energy question will change the world? Explain. †¢ Should the world oil supply be divided evenly according to population, given to those able to pay the highest price, or reserved for developing nations? Explain your opinion. †¢ Is it acceptable for a nation to use oil as a weapon? Why/why not? †¢ Would you characterize each of the following as a good citizen or a bad citizen? Why? -The oil companies -The automobile companies -U. S.consumers -Scientists researching hydrogen fuel -The citizens trying to save the electric car †¢ Is energy a national security issue? Why/how? Explain. †¢ How is the use of hydrogen as a fuel related to the reemergence of nuclear power? †¢ Does drilling for more oil in the pristine wilderness make sense? Why/why not? †¢ Given the information provided in the film, do you believe electric cars are a reasonable alternative to combustion engines? Why/why not? †¢ Given the information provided in the film, do you believe you will be able to buy a hydrogen-powered car in the next 10 years? 20 years? Ever? Why/why not? 5 MOCK COURT Choose defense and prosecution teams for each of the seven defendants identified in the film. Have the teams prepare for a mock trial using the information in the film and if desired, additional research. Stage a trial with a jury that has not seen the film. Roles: Judge: Acts as presiding officer maintaining order, resolving conflicts, and charging the jury. Prosecution team: Presents evidence against the named defendant using witnesses, charts, graphs, and physical evidence. The team would also cross-examine defense witnesses. The prosecution’s job is to prove beyond a reasonable doubt the guilt of the defendant. Defense team: Presents evidence that rebuts the prosecution’s view and may suggest alternative perpetrators. The defense may use witnesses, charts, graphs, and physical evidence. The team would also cross-examine prosecution witnesses. The defense’s job is to create reasonable doubt as to the guilt of the defendant. This activity can be used as an alternative assessment of student knowledge while also building critical thinking and oral presentation skills. 6 COMMON GOOD Open the activity by reading the paragraph below. Allow for a few minutes of general comment on the concept of the â€Å"common good† and the claim by then G. M. president Charles E. Wilson: What’s good for the country is good for General Motors and vice versa. The preamble to the United States Constitution opens with the words: â€Å"We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. † These words imply a common interest that is shared by citizens and government, a concept often referred to as the â€Å"common good. † In 1953, the then president of General Motors, Charles E. Wilson, was nominated by President Dwight Eisenhower to serve as his Secretary of Defense. During Wilson’s confirmation hearings, senators were concerned that he would have difficulty making a decision that could hurt General Motors, a major defense contractor, even if the decision was in the best interest of the United States. When asked this question, Wilson assured senators that he could make such a decision but that he could not imagine such a situation, â€Å"because for years I thought what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa. † Student instruction Who Killed the Electric Car? implies that the â€Å"common good† is not being served by the decision to abandon electric vehicles and embrace hydrogen technology. Write your own definition of the â€Å"common good. † Make groups of 3 to 5 and share these definitions. Try to agree on a group definition. Evaluate General Motors’ decision to kill the electric car program in light of your group’s definition. Be ready to report your findings to the class. Do Mr. Wilson’s thoughts from 1953 reflect the General Motors Corporation that is presented in the film? If the Senate called the current president of G. M. to explain the death of the electric car, imagine what he might say that would be quoted more than 50 years later. 7 HIDDEN AGENDA Teacher introduction As a class, brainstorm about the term â€Å"hidden agenda. † When you get all the ideas on the board, make groups of 3 to 5. In groups, have the class discuss the ideas on the board and then write a definition of â€Å"hidden agenda† that the group can agree on. As a class, share these definitions and create one working definition for the whole class. Have students return to their groups and discuss what â€Å"hidden agenda(s)† the following may have had. To make a claim, the group must have at least one piece of solid evidence from the film. Each group should decide which three of their claims are the strongest and prepare to present them to the class. Present and discuss: Automobile companies: Hidden agenda: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Evidence: Oil companies: Hidden agenda: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Evidence: Filmmakers: Hidden agenda: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Evidence: Car companies: Hidden agenda: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Evidence: Federal government: Hidden agenda: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Evidence: Fans of the electric car: Hidden agenda: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Evidence: C. A. R. B. : Hidden agenda: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Evidence: 8 WHAT IS THE ROLE OF BUSINESS? What is the role of business in a democratic/capitalist society? The complex interaction between business, government, and consumers is presented as a case study in Who Killed the Electric Car?. After viewing the film, clarify your own attitude toward the role of business, before any discussion, by using the prompts that follow. Prioritize the entire list from 1, most important, to 10, least important, and then write just a sentence or two that explains each ranking. Using your results, make groups that include individuals with different attitudes. While you discuss the movie, analyze how different views of business influence opinions about the film. ______ The role of business is to make a profit. ______ The role of business is to make a good product. ______ The role of business is to serve the consumer. ______ The role of business is to support government. ______ The role of business is to educate government. ______ The role of business is to educate consumers. ______ The role of business is to improve life. ______ The role of business is to protect the environment. ______ The role of business is to provide consumers with choice. ______ The role of business is to invent solutions to society’s problems. 9 WHAT IS THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT? What is the role of government in a democratic/capitalist society? The complex interaction between business, government, and citizens is presented as a case study in Who Killed the Electric Car?. After viewing the film, clarify your own attitude toward the role of government, before any discussion, by using the prompts that follow. Prioritize the entire list from 1, most important, to 10, least important, and then write just a sentence or two that explains each ranking. Using your results, make groups that include individuals with different attitudes. While you discuss the movie, analyze how different views of government influence opinions about the film. ______ The role of government is to defend the nation. ______ The role of government is to create a just society. ______ The role of government is to protect the consumer. ______ The role of government is to protect business. ______ The role of government is to regulate business. ______ The role of government is to educate consumers. ______ The role of government is to improve life for all citizens. ______ The role of government is to protect the environment. ______ The role of government is to provide consumers with choice. ______ The role of government is to invent solutions to society’s problems. 10 MAKING THE CASE. In the second half of Who Killed the Electric Car? , each of the suspects in this mystery is held up to scrutiny. Acting as an unbiased detective, develop a list of the evidence offered for guilt and the evidence that indicates innocence. In groups or as a class, use these evidence lists as the basis for a debate that leads to a vote on each suspect. The suspect___________________________________________________ Evidence to convict Evidence to acquit 11 BRIAN DANIELS teaches history and ethics at Hudson High School, Hudson, Massachusetts. He is the school facilitator for the democratic school initiative at. Hudson High and an active member of the school’s First Amendment Schools team. He has been teaching for thirty years and holds bachelor’s degrees in history and psychology from Boston College and a master’s degree in critical and creative thinking from the University of Massachusetts at Boston. He will become the Curriculum Director for English and Social Studies grades 6-12 in the Hudson school district in the summer of 2006. He has been published several times in the Boston Globe and has an article slated for publication in October of 2006 in the National Social Studies. Supervisors Association magazine. A SONY PICTURES CLASSICS RELEASE ELECTRIC ENTERTAINMENT PRESENTS A DEAN DEVLIN/PLINYMINOR PRODUCTION A FILM BY CHRIS PAINE â€Å"WHO KILLED THE ELECTRIC CAR? † NARRATED BY MARTIN SHEEN EDITED BY MICHAEL KOVALENKO CHRIS A. PETERSON DIRECTOR OF PHOTOGRAPHY THADDEUS WADLEIGH ORIGINAL MUSIC BY MICHAEL BROOK CONSULTING PRODUCER ALEX GIBNEY EXECUTIVE PRODUCERS DEAN DEVLIN TAVIN MARIN TITUS RICHARD D. TITUS PRODUCED BY JESSIE DEETER WRITTEN AND DIRECTED BY CHRIS PAINE FOR BRIEF MILD LANGUAGE. WWW. WHOKILLEDTHEELECTRICCARMOVIE. COM WWW. SONYCLASSICS. COM.

Explain why Jews may observe the Sabbath in different ways Essay Example for Free

Explain why Jews may observe the Sabbath in different ways Essay In Judaism there are many divisions of Jews and their faiths. However, there are two main sub-divisions that all Jews will fit into unless they are only Jews by race and not by faith (Secular) although these Jews may carry on the traditions of their ancestors. The sub-divisions are Progressive Jews and Orthodox Jews. Orthodox can be translated from ancient Greek as meaning God given/ Right Belief, Orthodox Jews are those who are very strict observers of the Torah and rules regarding Jewish celebrations. Due to the ways in which society has changed since the torah has written, the orthodox Jews try to find ways of fulfilling the Torah in their society. The orthodox Jews believe that the Torah is the exact word of God as given to Moses who carved out the 10 commandments. The orthodox Jews believe that Moses was only secretary to God and what is written in the Torah is exactly Gods words from Mount Sinai. This makes it very important for orthodox Jews to keep all 613 mitzvot. As a result of this strict following of the law means that the orthodox Jews have strict ways of following the Sabbath. On this day they will always eat Kosher meals, as at all other times in the year, they will not drive a car, this is thought to resemble lighting a fire- forbidden to do on Sabbath in Torah, and this can be seen because the car parks at Orthodox Synagogues are always closed during Shabbat. The Jews will also not be allowed to cook, write or turn on lights as the Torah forbids that any creative work may be done at Shabbat because as God rested on this day then why should the Jews work. The above three examples are forbidden because they either result in fire being made, which is not allowed, or can have a creative effect, i.e. letter to politician. Other everyday happenings not allowed are turning on/ watching television and driving a car. These are both because they use electricity or petrol and so mean a flame being created to start them. Progressive Jews are those that have broken off from the orthodox Jewish community. Their main difference to the orthodox Jews is that they do not believe that the Torah is the exact word of God. However, Progressive Jews are still as strict about moral laws for the community but less concerned about ritual laws. Progressive Jews believe that as the rules have been intended for man then the ancient rabbis have written the Torah. They also believe that Judaism should change in order to accommodate modern society and so each generation of Jews should choose their own laws to follow. For example, some Progressive Jews might choose not to follow the Kosher laws and eat food products that Progressive Jews who do follow Kosher, would not, such as pork and bacon. (Jewish law believes the pig to be an unclean animal and so does not allow Jews to eat its meat, or that of any other unclean animal.) As a result of their different beliefs in the Torah the Progressive Jews will probably be less strict with their laws on Shabbat. Some progressive Jews might not follow kosher meals although many still will. Others will still drive to work, light a lamp or write a letter. The items that are forbidden in the Talmud are known as Melachah, which translates as work, this is because Jews are supposed to abstain from work on the Sabbath. Another main difference would be in the Synagogue. The service would often be in the vernacular language, whereas in orthodox synagogues the service is often in Hebrew, women would sit with men and sometimes there may be a female rabbi. However even with these difference s the fundamentals of Orthodox and Progressive Jews is the same. These are the family and the centrality of the Sabbath to the continuation of the Jewish faith.

Gottfried Thomasius View Of Kenotic Christology Religion Essay

Gottfried Thomasius View Of Kenotic Christology Religion Essay Introduction The incarnation of Jesus Christ has been a subject of attention from the earliest decades of the formation of the Christian Church. It has not been without its subsequent controversies. Several early councils were convened to address the various issues regarding the Godhead and in particular, the person and nature of Christ. Of these, the fourth great council of Chalcedon established the parameters of the person and nature of Christ in the orthodox view.  [1]  In an attempt to articulate the person and nature of Christ, the German theologian Gottfried Thomasius published a work between 1853 and 1861 entitled: Christi Person und Werk (Christs Person and Work).  [2]  In this essay, Thomasius called attention to the Greek word kenosis found in Philippians 2:7 in demonstrating his theory of the emptying of Christ during the incarnation. Thomasius view of kenosis contributed considerably to the interest in the incarnation principles of Christology. His work became the basis for fu rther studies into what is more commonly called Kenotic theology. This paper will attempt to show that Thomasius view of kenosis is not completely consistent with the formula of Chalcedon and did not adequately comply with the orthodox principles of the incarnation. Development of Systematic Theology As the early church began to grow so did varying opinions as men began to think about the doctrines of scripture in a systematic way. Was Jesus God? First-century Christians saw that the answer was not simple. Nature is not simple, so why then should we expect the Creator of nature be simple?  [3]   Within the first four hundred years of Christianity there arose six major heresies and they all involved an aspect of the person of Christ.  [4]  Then, as now, there are doctrines, which men wrestle with and that still divide themselves over. Even today there are those who would say that some things are too complex to fully understand such as Robertson McQuilkin who said, As we approach the Bible intent on discovering all the truth God intends for us to understand, we should examine our expectations and attitudes, as there are limitations on what is possible.  [5]   Not withstanding, it is the obligation of every Christian to search out the truths of Gods word and to faithfully study it in order to build a competent system of beliefs. With regard to the person and nature of Christ, the words of Millard Erickson ring all the more true when he said, All departures from the orthodox doctrine of the person of Christ are simply variations of one of these [six] heresies. While we may have difficulty specifying exactly the content of this doctrine, full fidelity to teaching of Scripture will carefully avoid each of these distortions.  [6]   The Council of Chalcedon The early councils of the Christian church were ecumenical gatherings of church leaders and scholars who were brought together in order to address the issues that divided the church and sought to set forth declarations that defined the proper understanding of these controversial theological issues that had an impact on the church. Each of the great councils formulated certain dogma about these issues of controversy, which then became the orthodox view of the Christian church. Concerning the first great council of Nicea, Norman Geisler states, The Nicene Creed (A.D. 325) states the uniform belief of all orthodox Christianity that Christ was fully God and fully Man. All heresies regarding Christ deny one or the other of these.  [7]  One of the utmost important issues to the Church was, and rightfully should have been, a proper understanding of the person and nature of Christ. In regard to the council of Chalcedon, which was convened in 451, J. H. Hall wrote: The work of Chalcedon can be understood only in the light of a series of Christological declarations beginning with the Council of Nicea (325). The Nicene Creed declared that Christ is of the same divine substance with the Father, against Arius, who taught that Christ had a beginning and was only of similar substance. The Council of Constantinople (381) both ratified and refined the Nicene Creed, in opposition to continuing Arianism, and declared against Apollinarianism, which stated that Christs human soul had been replaced by the divine Logos. Moreover, Constantinople declared that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.  [8]   As questions continued to grow about the nature of Christ in the incarnation, so did controversy. The preceding councils established the churches opinion with regard to the deity of Christ that He is indeed of the same substance as the father. Later questions arose with respect to the human side and divine side of the nature of Christ. The Nestorian view held to a separation of the two natures of Christ as opposed to the Eutychian view, which theorized that Christ had only one nature.  [9]  The Nestorian view was rejected at the council of Ephesus but Eutychianism was later embraced. Seeing the continued discord, Pope Leo I instigated Emperor Marcion to call a new council and it was decided that it would be held in the city of Chalcedon. The Council of Chalcedon achieved three important things. J.H. Hall states, First, it reaffirmed the Nicene tradition; second, it accepted as orthodox the letters of Cyril and Leo; and third, it provided a definition of the faith.  [10]  Hall continues, There existed two overarching concerns- maintenance of the unity of Christs person and establishment of the two natures of Christ.  [11]   The Catechetical Lectures of S. Cyril of Jerusalem attribute a section of Epiphanius, Ancoratus, 118, c. AD 374, as being that which contained the Nicene creed which was read and approved at Chalcedon.  [12]  What Chalcedon effectively achieved was setting forth certain parameters about the nature of Christ. That which is formulated to the understanding of these two natures must therefore fall within these parameters in order to remain orthodox. In setting these parameters of orthodoxy, certain attributes must be maintained. One of the most important issues involves immutability. The Definition of Chalcedon sustained the continued immutability of Christ. The council declaration was as follows: Therefore, following the holy Fathers, we all with one accord teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, at once complete in Godhead and complete in manhood, truly God and truly man, consisting also of a reasonable soul and body; of one substance with the Father as regards his Godhead, and at the same time of one substance with us as regards his manhood; like us in all respects, apart from sin; as regards his Godhead, begotten of the Father before the ages, but yet as regards his manhood begotten, for us men and for our salvation, of Mary the Virgin, the God-bearer; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, recognized in two natures, without confusion, without change, without division, without separation; the distinction of natures being in no way annulled by the union, but rather the characteristics of each nature being preserved and coming together to form one person and subsistence, not as parted or separated into two persons, but one and the sa me son and Only-begotten God the Word, Lord Jesus Christ; even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, and the creed of the Fathers has handed down to us.  [13]   The Chalcedonian Creed provided the church with a statement that Christ indeed possessed two distinct natures, both a human side and divine side and that he existed in one person in an unchangeable way.  [14]   Gottfried Thomasiuss view of kenosis In the first part of the 19th century, when Ferdinand Baur became professor of theology at Germanys Tubingen University, he [following in the footsteps of G.W.F. Hegel] began in earnest to attack the historical credibility of the New Testament and in particular the Gospel of John.  [15]  But after a series of textual and archeological finds, Adolf von Harnack, who himself once sympathized with Baur, rejected his assumptions stating in 1897 that, The assumptions of Baurs school, one can almost say, are now wholly abandoned.  [16]  This confrontation sparked by the rise of modern criticism produced many such debates and it serves to illustrate the theological climate within which Gottfried Thomasius and other German theologians wrote. Gottfried Thomasius was a Lutheran theologian who in the mid-eighteen hundreds, attempted to develop an acceptable Christology that could withstand the criticism of his day.  [17]  In an attempt to do so, he published his Christi Person und Werk. David Law states, The first edition of Christi Person und Werk appeared between 1853 and 1861. Because of the criticism leveled at the early volumes of the first edition, Thomasius began revisions for the second edition before all three volumes of the first edition had appeared. The second edition was published between 1856 and 1863. A third and abridged edition, edited after Thomasiuss death by F.J. Winter, was published between 1886 and 1888, but it is the second edition that is regarded as the mature and authoritative statement of Thomasisus kenotic Christology.  [18]   Subsequent publications showed Thomasiuss efforts to expound on his notion of kenosis. David Law states, In Beitrag Thomasius argued that the tensions within Lutheran Christology could be resolved only by reformulating the doctrine of the person of Christ in terms of a self-limitation of the Logos.  [19]  In essence this self-limitation is the idea behind Thomasiuss view of kenosis. Law gives a more defined description of this idea stating, It was above all Thomasiuss contribution to kenotic Christology that established him as a major theologian. The noun kenosis and the adjective kenotic are derived from the use of the term ekenosen in Phil. 2:7, where we read of Christ Jesus who, though he was in the form of God, did not regard equality with God as something to be exploited, but emptied himself [heauton ekenosen], taking the form of a servant, being born in human likeness. On the basis of the use of the term ekenosen in this text, kenosis has come to be used as shorthand for a series of issues arising from the claim that Christ is both truly divine and truly human. How can divinity and humanity coexist in the one, united person of Christ without undermining the integrity of either nature? Kenotic christologies are those christologies which attempt to address this problem by arguing that Christ emptied himself of some aspect of his divine nature in order to become a human being.  [20]   The notion of Christ emptying himself of some aspect of the divine nature in an act of self-limitation has serious significance and questions the immutability of God the Son. This comes into direct contradiction with the statement of Chalcedon in several key areas. First, Chalcedon established that the incarnation of Christ did not change, effect or diminish any attributes of deity Christ had before the incarnation. He is without changeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [21]  . Secondly, Chalcedon affirmed the distinction of natures, being no way annulled by the union, but rather the characteristics of each nature, being preserved and coming together to form one person and subsistenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.  [22]  The orthodox view is that the incarnation of Christ did not constitute a loss of any aspect of his divine nature, through the act of kenosis or any other such theory. Kenotic Theology Although Thomasiuss influence and that of kenotic Christology in general gave way in Germany in the 1880s to Ritschlianism, kenotic Christology enjoyed a second flowering in Britainà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.  [23]  In the years following, interest would subside but then unexpectedly grow again as theologians once again reexamine the kenotic theory. In recent years there has been a renewed interest in kenotic Christology (see, for example, Evans, 2006). Any current attempt to formulate a coherent and viable kenotic Christology will need to return to Thomasiuss work, above all to his Christi Person und Werk.  [24]  . In Christian Theology Millard Erickson gives his definition of kenoticism stating, The second Person of the Trinity laid aside his distinctly divine attributes (omnipotence, omnipresence, etc.), and took on human qualities instead.  [25]  In this view, Jesus is not God and man simultaneously, but successively. Kenoticism implies that Jesus is both God and man, just not at the same time.  [26]   Others have thought to develop the position of kenoticism in not such an abrogated way. Instead they incorporate the idea into a more mild form of kenotic theology. In a review of Michael J. Gormans Inhabiting the Cruciform God: Kenosis, Justification, and Theosis in Pauls Narrative Soteriology, Timothy G. Gombis of Cedarville University states, In chapter 1, Gorman develops Pauls master story that demonstrates the kenotic character of Jesus Christ and reveals the very identity of God as kenotic. He focuses on Phil 2:5-11 and argues, based on a thorough exegetical treatment of the passage, that the pattern although [x] not [y] but [z] reveals the narrative trajectory of the kenosis of Jesus. By this, Gorman means although [status] not [selfishness] but [selflessness] (p.16). Jesus Christ had status as God himself but did not exploit this, using it for his own comfort of personal gain. Rather, he pursued several progressively degrading positions on a movement of downward mobility, going eventually to the publicly shameful death on a cross (pp. 16-17). For Gorman, this passage is not properly understood to mean that Christ did this despite the fact that he was in the form of God. Rather, Christ pursued this path because he was in the form of God. In other words, and this is a crucial point for Gorman, Christs being in the form of God is most clearly seen in his self-emptying and self-expenditure (p. 25). In this sense, the very character of God is kenotic (self-emptying) and cruciform (cross-shaped).  [27]   In this passage, the reviewer (Gombis) notes that the author (Gorman) thinks the kenotic passages are not clearly understood. Noting this misrepresentation, he suggests a proper view of kenotic theology. Whether or not Gorman is true in his assumptions remains speculative however it does illustrate the contemporary effort to redefine the implications inherent in kenotic theology. Classical Theology The more classical view of the person and nature of Christ are theologies based more on the Chalcedonian formula and are replete in the theological community. Some theologians have attempted to address the problem of formulating an acceptable understanding of the human and divine nature of Christ always keeping a wary eye upon the parameters of the orthodox or Chalcedonian understanding of the incarnation. From the abstract of Robin Le Poidevins Identity and the composite Christ: an Incarnational delemma, the author states, One way of understanding the reduplicative formula Christ is, qua God, omniscient, but qua man, limited in knowledge is to take the occurrences of the qua locution as picking out different parts of Christ: a divine part and a human part. But this view of Christ as a composite being runs into paradox when combined with the orthodox understanding, adopting a philosophically and theologically contentious perdurantist account of persistence through time, or rejecting altogether the idea of the composite Christ.  [28]   Here the author points out a formula of Christology of the human and divine natures but at the same time, recognizes that it conflicts paradoxically with the Chalcedonian parameters of the incarnation. In this respect, many theologians still show deference to and recognize the importance of the Chalcedonian councils definitive statement. The Chalcedonian parameters have been a staple in guiding theological thought for centuries. George P. Pardington, who was a well-esteemed professor of theology among the Christian Alliance, makes this clear. In his theology primer Outline Studies in Christian Doctrine, He deals with passages in Philippians 2:6,7 and other verses that show the nature of the preexistence of Christ and the incarnations, stating, These and other phrases express ineffable relationships within the Godhead, which we cannot comprehend. On Phil. 2:6 Thayers Greek Lexicon says: Form (Greek, morphe) is that by which a person or thing strikes the vision, the external appearance. There is nothing in this passage, which teaches that the Eternal Word (John 1:1) emptied Himself of either His divine nature of His attributes, but only of the outward visible manifestation of the Godhead. He emptied, stripped Himself, of the insignia of Majesty (Lightfoot). When occasion demanded, He exercised His divine attributes (Moorehead).  [29]   Pardingtons view of the kenotic passages in no way contradicts the Chalcedonian parameters since Christ did not give up any of his divine nature or attributes. Contemporary Debate Roger Olsen has noted that the differing opinions among evangelicals. He states, Kenotic Christology-emphasizing the need to take with utmost seriousness Jesus true humanity, including limited consciousness- has made significant inroads among evangelicals, while other evangelical theologians have resisted and criticized it.  [30]  Olsen continues to describe what he characterizes as a very heated debate among more progressive and conservative Evangelicals stating, As recently as the mid-1990s heresy charges were thrown by conservative evangelicals at more moderate and progressive ones who dared to use the kenotic motif in writing about the incarnation.  [31]   Theologians who reaffirm the Chalcedon formula would be Bernard Ramm and Carl Henry.  [32]  Examples of some who are more outspoken against kenoticism would be Thomas V, Morris, Donald Bloesch, Millard Erickson and Stanley Grenz.  [33]  While Grenz is somewhat critical of kenotic theology, he nevertheless does not espouse the traditional Chalcedon formula either.  [34]  Olsen states, Two evangelical theologians who have attempted to push the frontiers of Christology are Clark Pinnock and Stanley Grenz. Both affirm that Jesus Christ is truly God and truly human, but they are dissatisfied with the classical expression of that belief in Chalcedonian Christology (hypostatic union). They are not so much interested in rejecting it as in supplementing it with new and more helpful thought forms. People today, they argue, are not as tuned as ancient people were to the substance ontologies of Greek metaphysics, and the times call for a new expression of the doctrine of Jesus Christs humanity and divinity.  [35]   While the purpose of this paper is not to critique the various forms of Christology espoused by many theologians among the ranks of evangelicals (and they are many), it is however concerned with the classical Chalcedonian formula of the incarnation, and whether or not kenotic theology adheres to it and why this is important. While there are those who strongly support the Chalcedonian formula, there are others who feel that it is flawed. Roger Olsen notes that both Clark Pinnock and Stanley Grenz are dissatisfied with the classical expression of that belief in Chalcedonian Christology (hypostatic union).  [36]  He once again points to the work of Stanley Grenz to illustrate this stating, Grenz argues in Theology for the Community of God (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000) that classical Incarnational Christology falls short biblically and logically and revises it using the eschatological ontology (the future as the locus of being) of German theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg. According to Grenz, Jesus Christ is the Logos, who is not to be thought of as preexisting and then descending into human history but as revealing God and therefore belonging to the eternity of God by virtue of his resurrection.  [37]  [Emphasis is Olsens]. Olsen continues with his critique of Grenz showing how it is at variance with classical Christology. This is where the debate becomes relevant to this research with respect to the Chalcedonian formula. Olsen states, The main difference between this Christology and classical Christology [Chalcedonian] lies in its denial of a logos asarkos discarnate or preincarnate Logos or Son of God. For Grenz, Jesus Christ is the Logos, the second person of the Trinity. Whatever tensions or problems may exist in Pinnocks and Grenzs Christology, they are not so much revisions of the hypostatic union as restatements of the basic Christological vision in new terms.  [38]   The abandoning of the basic tenants of the Chalcedonian formula present some extreme difficulties, particularly in light of the doctrine of the Preexistence of Christ which was affirmed at Chalcedon. One of the issues in regard to the nature of Christ concerns his Consciousness. When did Christ come to the realization of who he was? Theologians like Myer Pearlman were more content to leave this question open stating, Just exactly when and how this self-consciousness came must remain a mystery to us. When we think of God coming to us in the form of a man we must reverently exclaim, Great is the mystery of godliness!  [39]  Erickson would say, There were within his person dimensions of experience, knowledge and love not found in human beings. We must recognize that in dealing with Christ, he was more than just a man. He had and maintained all the qualities of a divine nature and a sinless human nature as well.  [40]   Another important issue that must be addressed is that the hypostatic union is permanent and everlasting. What Christ became in the incarnation is what he shall remain eternally (Heb 2:17, 7:24).  [41]  This is a problem for the kenotic view of Christ since that in the kenotic view, according to Erickson.  [42]  Jesus is both God and man, just not at the same time. This would imply a doing away with what Jesus became in the incarnation after his ascension and glorification. Conclusion The question that this research is concerned with may be answered by saying that Gottfried Thomasiuss original view of kenosis is not completely consistent with the formula of Chalcedon and did not adequately comply with the orthodox principles of the incarnation. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Bettenson, Henry. Documents of the Christian Church ed. Henry Bettenson and Chris Maunder Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Byfield, Ted. ed., The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years Edmonton: Christian Millennial History Project, 2002. Erickson, Millard J., Christian Theology Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1998. Geisler, Norman L. When Skeptics Ask: a handbook on Christian Evidences Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing, 2008. Gombis, Timothy G. in review of Inhabiting the Cruciform God: Kenosis, Justification, and Theosis in Pauls Narrative Soteriology, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Vol. 52, Is. 4 2009, p. 866. Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity vol.1, The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation New York: Harper Collins, 1984. Hall, J.H., Chalcedon, Council of (451), in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009. Law, David R. Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) in The Blackwell Companion to the Theologians Volume 2, ed. Ian S. Markham Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Le Poidevin, Robin. Identity and the composite Christ: an Incarnational dilemma, in Religious Studies, Cambridge: Vol. 45, Is. 2 2009, p. 167. McQuilkin, Robertson. Understanding and Applying the Bible Chicago: Moody Press, 1992. Mitchell, Daniel R. The Unity of the Person of Christ, Class lecture, Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary, April 15, 2010. Olsen, Roger E. The Westminster handbook to Evangelical Theology Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004. Pardington, George P. Outline Studies in Christian Doctrine Harrisburg: Christian Publications, 1926. Pearlman, Myer. Knowing the Doctrines of the Bible Springfield: Gospel Publishing, 1981.

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovitch Literary Techniques Essay

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovitch Literary Techniques Alexander Solzhenitsyn's style of writing is economical and unornamental. This is particularly true of One Day. This would seemingly cause little difficulty in translating One Day were it not for the great amount of prison jargon contained in the dialogues and discussion of life in the camp. The author's motto might well be, "wie es eigentlich gewesen," or "tell it like it is." In believing as he does in honest realism and not the propaganda slogan of "socialist realism," Solzhenitsyn wishes to render the real-life situations he describes in so many of his writings-but especially in One Day-in real-life language. The author did not have to use any glossaries of prison argot, although the translator must; Solzhenitsyn simply drew on his own 8-years' experience in corrective labor camps. Artistic Use Of Blunt Language Many "unprintable" Russian words turn up in One Day, as it was first published in Novy Mir. Words like khub kren, yebat', govno and der'mo, khui, pizda, etc., would make Beelzebub himself blush, but since they are part of a zek's vocabulary, they appear in the novella. In the half-dozen extant English translations of the work, these words are rendered with the frankness of a Henry Miller novel. In Solzhenitsyn's case, the reader gets the impression that far from wishing to be shocking or sensational, the author has used these obscenities to show how debased humans can become. In any case, most of the smutty language comes out of the mouths of the camp authorities. This undoubtedly is the author's way of illustrating the source of the debasement, debasement not only... ...xample, it is sometimes difficult to know whether he is speaking to us, the readers, or to another character in the dialogue. At this juncture, the author, via the narrator, may step in to wrap up a scene with a comment or observation. In brief, the author has employed a number of techniques to achieve his overall strategy in One Day. Above all, he wants to tell us the truth in the manner in which we are generally acquainted with raw truth: as a blunt, lopsided thing which we have no other choice but to accept. Avoiding as he does ornamentation or lengthy sentences and description (in the Dickensian or Dostoyevskian manner), Solzhenitsyn accomplishes a stoic austerity which somehow suits the equally stark scenes, lean figures, and cleanshaven heads of the zeks etched against the bleak white background of the Siberian camp.

Russian Bank Scandal :: essays research papers

On October 6, 1999 the news hour with Jim Lehrer air a focus topic called â€Å"Following the Money†. This focus discussion dealt with the Russian Bank Scandal. This scandal deals with the transfer of about seven billions dollars out of the Bank of New York to companies with Russian associations. Robert O’Harrow , a banking expert for the Washington Post, believes that this scandal will become a serious policy issue. Base on his conclusion of this becoming a serious problem, one may see that there are problems in the banking structure of the United States. In fact there has to be a problem when seven billion dollars of transions are made to foreign soils and no one throws up a red flag. One may also conclude that this scandal reaches further that the banking structure. The question must be ask, â€Å"Where is all this money coming from†? This money could be money that was given by the International Monetary Fund to help rebuild the fallen Russian economy. That mo ney could now be being used to support criminal activities. As we see now this could be not only an international problem, but a domestic problem also. In today’s warfare the victor is left in rebuilding the fallen enemy. In this case the United States won the cold war and is now left to pay the bill for rebuilding Russia. The money that is being use comes directly from taxpayers. I believe that this is the reason why Mr. O’Harrow believes this will have a serious effect on policy decision. If the money that is supposed to help the Russian people is being for wrongdoing and the Russians are behind this, the scandal could have a serious effect on U.S. and Russian relations. Policy makers will be force to make changes in the methods it helps Russian during this time of need.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This scandal can be serious external triggering mechanism. With the scandal dealing largely with belief that international money is being used to support illegal activities could cause a major shift in decision making. At the moment the Intensity of this problem has not reach a level of alert. Mainly become most American do not see the potential backlash of this scandal. Once the facts come out and taxpayers are forced to tote the bill of paying back the lost funds then the matter will intensify. Also American can grow tired of given money to a country that does no use money for reasons the money was given to them.

We All Have the Right To Life! :: abortion argumentative persuasive argument

We All Have the Right To Life! Life is a right held by all creatures on the universe, everything has life; however, everything also has it's own character or individuality. Every person is his or her own self and does what he or she wishes to do to a certain extent. Many people are opposed to an individuals decision on life they should realize that in America people have the freedom to do what they want. In Roman times, abortion ans the destruction of unwanted children was permissible, however civilization's aged and now there is a huge controversy about who chooses. In the 1970's the Roe v. Wade was tried in the U.S. Supreme Court. 'Jane Roe' took the District Attorney of Dallas county to the Supreme Court because she wanted an abortion and was not legally permitted to have one where she lived. She could not afford to travel elsewhere to have it "preformed" so she went to court. On January 22, 1973 the Supreme Court said that it was legal for any woman to have an abortion and terminate her pregnancy at any given time. The Roman Catholic Church has said that abortion is murder and violates all terms of human morality. My personal opinion lays between that of the Roman Catholic Church and the Supreme Court. I believe that a woman should have the right to an abortion only if she was raped and can not afford to have the child, or if she does not know who the father is. If the woman just want's to have an abortion for no reason, believes that the baby will be born with a handicap, or will be born with a disease, life threatening or not the abortion should not be permitted to take place. Within the past year President Clinton has vetoed a bill that will outlaw "partial birth abortions," I strongly oppose his decision and believe that he should have outlawed them. In New Jersey, there is an assemblywoman writing a bill that would outlaw them in New Jersey and fine each party involved twenty-five thousand dollars. Assisted suicide has also been a controversial topic concerning the right to life. I believe that everyone should come to accept the fact that people have

Memory, thinking and intelligence

Early researchers believed intelligence was a general or unitary trait because scores on diverse measures of intelligence including verbal ability, numerical competence and abstract reasoning were highly correlated (Spearman, 1972). However, modern theories or intelligence have defined intelligence in terms of multiple dimensions. Two of the most known intelligence theory is that of Gardner’s multiple intelligence and Sternberg’s triarchic model. The two theories are similar in that they posit that intelligence is not a single trait but rather is made up of subcomponents, however distinct differences exist between them. Gardner (1983) argues for the notion of multiple intelligences and proposes eight relatively independent types of intelligence which include linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist intelligences. He also says that we can develop these intelligences through environmental enrichment, the strength of our intelligences on the eight types lies in a continuum, that there are different ways of demonstrating our proficiency in intelligence and that they work together in complex ways. Gardner defines intelligence as the human ability to solve problems or to make something that is valued in one or more cultures. Sternberg (1990) had proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence. According to Sternberg, intelligence is made up of subcomponents that include the processes that underlie behavior or the componential intelligence, the ability to relate to novel tasks or new ideas in one’s environment or experiential intelligence, and the ability to adapt, select or shape one’s environment or contextual intelligence. For Sternberg, intelligence is purposive adaptation to, selection of and shaping of real-world environment relevant to one’s life and abilities (Sternberg, 1989). In comparing multiple intelligence to the triarchic theory of intelligence, we can observe that MI has emphasized the content and construct of intelligence while Sternberg focused on the way people gather and use information. Multiple intelligence theory identified eight types of intelligence and has encouraged the educational community to think of student intelligence in these terms and that each of the types should be enriched and developed. While Sternberg, stresses the process by which a student acquire, learn and use information and knowledge and these abilities are intelligences that is always present in all of us and can be enhance by further training and education. I believe that Sternberg’s triarchic model of intelligence is more relevant in psychology today than multiple intelligence. The theory holds that intelligence is made up of componential, experiential and contextual abilities which are reflective of the traditions of psychology, to understand behavior, to learn through experience and to be masters of our environment. Thus the model has wider implication in the field of psychology, at present it has been used to understand the intellective abilities of racial and minority groups in school (Suzuki & Aronson, 2005). It has also been applied extensively by a gifted and talented school and has yielded positive results such as improved test scores and teacher morale (English, 1998). The theory has also been applied to adult education (Sharan & Rosemary, 1998). Moreover, the theory is built upon a solid tradition of scientific rigor and academic discourse, it has been supported by researches along the years although it has been surpassed in popularity by MI. References Caffarella, R. & Sharan, R. (1998). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide 2nd ed. Jossey-Bass. English, L. (1998) Uncovering Students' Analytic, Practical and Creative Intelligences: One School's Application of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory. School Administrator, Retrieved July 2, 2006 from http://www.aasa.org/publications/content.cfm?ItemNumber=4284 Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Gardner, H. (1987). Developing the spectrum of human intelligences. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 187-193 Sternberg, R. (1988). The Triarchic Mind. New York Sternberg, R. (1990). Metaphors of mind: Conceptions of the nature of intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press Suzuki, L. ; Aronson, J. (2005). The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11, (2) 320–327 ; ; ; ;